English Is Declining Essay Example for Free

English Is Declining Essay From Indo-European to Germanic, from Anglo-Saxon to the English of Chaucer, from Shakespeare to Henry James, English language is rich and extremely malleable that has survived barbarian invasions. â€Å"Language is the most important and the most powerful weapon in the hands of a state that has decided to transform human beings† (qtd. in p. 79 John Rodden). I have noticed that the languages being used in old time movies sound more articulate and powerful than the languages we use today. George Orwell described many of the â€Å"bad habits† in English writings in â€Å"Politics and the English Language†. Some other people argue that the information age, for various technological and cultural reasons, has launched English into a new creative state. In his essay â€Å"Politics and the English Language†, George Orwell pointed out two qualities of the five specimens of the English language have in common (473). The first is staleness of imagery; the other is lack of precision. He also said that â€Å"if thought corrupts language, language can also corrupt thought. It is important to write in honest and clear language and vague writing can be used as a powerful tool of political manipulation. † â€Å"Things like the continuance of British rule in India, the Russian purges and deportations, the dropping of the atom bombs on Japan, can indeed be defended, but only by arguments which are too brutal for most people to face, and which do not square with the professed aims of political parties. † (478) On the contrary, younger generations living in the new technology world think that a language lives, and will be subject to change. Jack G. Ganssle, a lecturer and consultant on embedded development issues, wrote that â€Å"Technology is leading to the total breakdown in the use of English. † He complains that â€Å"writing itself is degenerating as it mirrors the every-changing argot of the common person, as if there is some gold standard that statically defines a language for all time. Most of us accept the evolution of language over time. † He also used his favorite movie â€Å"The Mikado† as an example to justify his thoughts. In the movie, Gilbert’s cantankerous father scoffs at his son’s use of the newly-invented telephone, sniffing that â€Å"it will only lead to the further erosion of the English language. † And clearly the grumpy old man was wrong. I agree that the invention of the telephone is the most remarkable innovation in the history of mankind. Jack G. Ganssle used it as an example to imply that time would prove he is right on technology changes the way English is used. People like George Orwell and his supporters are not open minded to accept the change and development of new concepts in the world and still stick to the old rules. What Ganssle did not realize is that the invention of the telephone is not just a pure new technology, it enhanced the way how people communicate each other. Before the invention, people had to meet and talk, or rely on mailmen to deliver letters to each other. After the use of telephone, it made communication much easier and faster. People do talk and communicate much more than before. New technology might provide more channels people communicate each other, but it can’t replace the role of English language plays in people’s life. It is not the media that matters; it is the English language people use that matters. Interestingly, referring back to Orwell’s viewpoint on political writing I would like to ask Jack G. Ganssle and his supporters a question, â€Å"What would you do to deal with the fact that North Korea conducted asecond test of a nuclear weapon on May 26, 2009? † Text messaging â€Å"OMG! Stop it! †? That’s about the best method I can think of by your theory. Evidence shows that English is declining worldwide. The Philippines have been known for having the highest standard of English in Asia. According to Jonny in Manila, â€Å"English as a subject has suffered from lack of money, along with public education as a whole. † â€Å"The government-approved textbooks they will study illustrate the problem. A passage in one for 8-year-olds reads: â€Å"The dog rolled on the floor so fast and fell on the ground. There he laid yelling louder than ever. The dog yelled on top of his voice. † A book for 11-year-olds advises, mysteriously, â€Å"Just remember this acronym—DOCSiShQACNMN—to make it easy for you to remember the order of adjectives in a series. † I heard about a mother who sent her kid to school with the swine flu since she couldn’t afford to pay a babysitter to look after her sick child and she couldnt afford to stay home from work. If people dont even care enough to make tough decisions about the safety of their children, and other peoples children, how can proper education be made a priority? People are more money oriented and materialistic than they were before. Statistics also shows that by comparison, people nowadays study for future careers instead of self-interests developing. This also resulted in the declining of English. William M. Chace wrote, â€Å"The stability of these ideas in the postwar years, from the late 1940s until the early 1970s, permitted the spectacular growth in English departments. The number of English majors spurted up from 17,000 to 64,000 and the number of graduate students from 230 to 1,591. But by 1985/86, the number of undergraduate English majors had fallen back to 34,000, despite a hefty increase in total nationwide undergraduate enrollment. In the foreign languages, philosophy, and history, the story was the same: impressive growth followed by swift decline. The history of enrollments reveals, then, that the study of English and American literature enjoyed only a momentary glamour. † He also pointed out â€Å"Finding pleasure in such reading, and indeed in majoring in English, was a declaration at the time that education was not at all about getting a job or securing one’s future. In comparison with the pre-professional ambitions that dominate the lives of American undergraduates today, the psychological condition of students of the time was defined by self-reflection, innocence, and a casual irresponsibility about what was coming next. † Yes the new technologies have brought the whole world into a new era. There are much more temptations out there for people to own. When I was a kid, a plastic gun was good enough for me to enjoy my whole childhood. We played with dirt, with sand and water, with whatever the nature could offer. Parents and neighbors got together with kids reading stories. Let’s take a look at what kids grow up with today. Video games, cell phones, computers and internet. I am thrilled for the change and I also enjoy it. It seems like if all things around us start talking and listening meaningfully and we have enough bandwidth, there will be no need for reading or writing skills for most people. Road signs will be replaced by talking GPS. It sounds like a fantastic world. We have so many crutches to assist us in our daily life. People no longer need to memorize anything on their own. All you have to do is to make enough money in order to be able to afford them. I do enjoy the convenience and efficiency the advanced technology brings to us. Yet I pray every day there better be no power outage. We had a couple power outages in the server room at work these days. Guess what, I couldn’t do anything but wait for the power coming back since all my stuff are stored in company’s intranet and I can’t get connected to the server to extract the information to work on. Can you imagine what the world would be like if one day our crutches are not working properly? Would it be too late to find out we cannot even communicate properly on our own? I am in favor of George Orwell’s viewpoint. We ought to be able to speak and write English properly and precisely. New technologies can’t replace the power of English language. Works Cited Rodden, John. Scenes from an afterlife: the legacy of George Orwell. Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2003 Orwell, George. â€Å"Politics and the English Language. † Acting on Words: An integrated Rhetoric, Reader and Handbook. 2nd ed. Ed. David Brundage and Michael Lahey. Toronto: Pearson, 2009 471-81 Chace, William M. â€Å"The Decline of the English Department: How it happened and what could be done to reverse it† Autumn 2009 http://www. theamericanscholar. org/the-decline-of-the-english- department/ Ganssle, Jack. â€Å"The further decline of English. Technology is leading to the total breakdown in the use of English. Or something. † Nov. 2, 2005 http://www. embedded-systems. com/columns/embeddedpulse/173402052 Jonny. â€Å"Philippines: The Declining Standard of English† June 17, 2009 http://jonnynz. blogspot. com/2009/06/philippines-declining-standard-of. html

Analyse and discuss the marketing strategy used by Starbucks

Analyse and discuss the marketing strategy used by Starbucks Marketing is an essential part of a business strategy that can affect people view about a brand and this essay will duly demonstrate the effectiveness of Starbucks marketing strategy, particularly sensory marketing in attracting new young customers. There are numerous marketing techniques in todays business, different companies use different strategies, in order to sell its products to customers. One of the marketing techniques that became an object of discussion in a few companies is sensory marketing. It is important that companies understand sensory marketing for their business and how it will influence their marketing strategies in attracting new customers. Starbucks is a famous coffee company that has been implementing sensory marketing in their strategies for a few years. This essay will begin by, firstly, describing five senses included in sensory marketing and their relations to customer perception. Secondly, case studies in two Starbucks special outlets in creating comfortab le ambience will be introduced. Thirdly, we will discuss the importance of customer service, which can create customers experience through their senses. Fourthly, Starbucks online marketing strategy that matches with the evolution of todays technology. Lastly, we will analyse Starbucks sensory marketing strategy with its effectiveness to attracting new young customers. At the beginning we have to understand sensory marketing, and why it is necessary and how it influences customer perception of a product. Sensory marketing is a technique using five human senses to promote products, which has to be unique, authentic, and people can easily remember your brand (Bhargava, 2008, 208). Five senses which humans have are sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch; these senses can be used for persuading customers to interest its products. The sense of sight is the most seductive senses that humans have and human logic can be persuaded by this sense, therefore it is most widely used by companies in their marketing strategy. The other senses that not less important are taste and smell. These two senses are closely connected, which are very important in food and beverages business, because these senses enable the brain in creating memorable sensation in human minds. The sense of smell can turn-off other senses if customers have bad experience in smell. The last two senses that companies might consider are sense of sound and touch, which can help companies to give more experiences for customer about a product.Therefore, companies can utilise senses for their strategy to maintain customers as well as attracting new customers. One of the key points of Starbucks sensory marketing strategy is the appearance of their outlets that can maintain their customers to have a good perception about the brand as well as attract new customers. Starbucks marketing strategy, most of the time, concern customer experience, which involves customer senses through personal value and meaningful connection (Michelli, 2007, 11). The sound of the barista, who is a coffee preparer, working with the coffee machine and the smell of brewed coffee aroma are memorable moments related to our senses and naturally stored in customers memory. This ambience setting made their customers always visit the outlet and create Starbucks outlet to be the third place between work and home (Michelli, 2007, 103). The new Starbucks outlet concept in Central London, which opened in November 2009 can be a case study. The new concept is to provide a comfortable place in order to meet customer expectations including a beautiful environment and a new Starbuc ks experience Moreover, until 2006 Starbucks had opened four Starbucks Hear Music Coffeehouse, which are special outlets for its segmented customers (Starbucks, 2006). The main idea is to fulfil customers passion about music, i.e. using the hearing sense to reach customer experience with the Starbucks. Consequently, in every business development, Starbucks always tries to use sensory marketing to be their strategy to attract customers. Furthermore, other important part of the Starbucks sensory marketing strategy is customer services, which led Starbucks to be on the top of customers minds when thinking about places to have coffee, and it is created from customer experience with their senses. When customers enter Starbucks outlets they feel that they have a different experience, everybody feels welcome and regulars are normally recognised by the employees. Moreover, some of Starbucks employees try to remember their names, their jobs, and their favourite drinks (Michelli, 2007, 23). This situation made customers feel that they have a special relationship more than just fulfil their needs to buy a coffee. Starbucks have a service motto named make it on your own. This service allows customers to create their own coffee in order to meet their expectation in taste. In food and beverages business, taste and smell are two important parts to be required because different customers have different expectations in their taste and smell. Starbucks carefully considers, understands and delivers this to its customers with customisation in their drinks and provides various sizes of cups. Starbucks has put these strategies into primary strategy by using human senses to meet their needs and expectations. In recent years, technology has become more necessary and Starbucks follows these needs by providing resources, which can create more experience with their customers through sense of touch, sight, and sound.. Nowadays, we can see people using their smart phones, laptops, iPods, and many other smart devices that connect to the Internet during the day on a regular basis., Since first of July this year, Starbucks in America started to provide free Wi-Fi connection for its customers and launched Starbucks Digital Network content, that give enables its customers to access the premium partners such as iTunes, The New York Times, Patch, USA today, The Wall Street Journal, Yahoo!, and Zagat Meanwhile, the growth of social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and even Foursquare, forced Starbucks to be a part of these communications evolution in using technologies. Moreover, Starbucks has its own website called My Starbucks Idea, which allows their customers to give their idea, opinion about some ones idea, and join the discussion. These online marketing strategies are still related with their sensory marketing strategy that put together the sense of touch, sight, and sound, in order to meet young customers needs, who might only choose Starbucks to browse the internet, listen to music, or to go on facebook and twitter. Starbucks sensory marketing strategy has succeeded in maintaining its customers as well as attracting new ones, particularly young generations, and matched with the spirit of company innovation to inspire and support young people. The Starbucks website (2010) states that their goal is to engage 50,000 young people, who will in turn innovate, take action, and inspire 100,000 individuals in their communities by 2015; this means that Starbucks combines their strategy with social responsibility, which will be considered as a respectable company amongst the young people. On The Next Web website Noff (2010) discovered that Starbucks has over 705,000 followers on twitter and over 5,428,000 fans on Facebook. You could say that they are doing something right on the web, this fact shows that Starbucks has many loyal customers and most of them are the Internet users, especially young people. Starbucks also runs loyalty programs to attract young customers. Therefore, Starbucks sensory marketing strategy is considered as an effective strategy that has strong relationship with senses to attract new customers, particularly young customers with their spirit and innovative characteristics. In conclusion, this essay has demonstrated the effectiveness of Starbucks sensory marketing strategy to attract new young customers by analysing and discussing its relation the five human senses. Starbucks uses the five senses to make memorable experiences for its customers, particularly through their online marketing strategy, which satisfies young customers needs in adapting technology. Todays technology, such as social media and music content which are mainly used by young people, delivers new experience for customers. In fact, we can see this achievement from the number of fans on their Facebook and followers on Twitter. Starbucks has created emotional connection with its customers, uniqueness in make it on your own coffee, and attentive to details in every aspect of the outlet ambience. In comparison to other companies, Starbucks advertising and promotions expense is relatively small, they have always focused their budget on connecting the customers experience with the five huma n senses. The key point of their success in using sensory marketing is applying it consistently for a long period with passion throughout their everyday services. Customer experience is an intangible asset and very valuable, which made the Starbucks brand become a top operator in the coffee business.

Photography Review Essay example -- essays research papers

Photography Review Joel Meyerowitz spent the summer of 1976 and 1977 taking magnificent photographs, which he later published in 1997 in a book called â€Å"Cape light.† These photographs were taken in Cape Cod, Massachusetts around the Truro-Provincetown area in the summer. His book is full of marvelous photographs, which depict a typical summer up on the Cape. These pictures may seem beautiful to anyone. However, these pictures possess more meaning to anyone who has ever lived on Cape Cod or visited Cape Cod. Cape Cod is one of the most beautiful and meaningful places to me. From the time I was a baby on, my family and I have spent many wonderful summer in the Cape. My parent, have been going to Cape Cod, Massachusetts since they were first married. When I think of Cape Cod, the first thing that comes to my mind are memories of the same old little beach cottage my family has rented year after year. I think of Cape Cod and thoughts fill my head with the beach, water, sand, beach cottages, and hot summer days. When I look at Joel Meyerowitz’s book the photos almost come to life. The color and images are so real. The same thoughts that I have for the water, sand, and beach are expressed in Meyerowitz’s photos.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Joel Meyerowitz took his photographs with an 8†x10† view camera. The prints were in full size, made directly from the negatives without any kind of changes or manipulations. Joel Meyerowitz’s is a pictorialist. His picture are taken of scenery...

Behaviorism Essay -- Psychology, Pavlov, Thorndike

Behaviorism according to Craig & Dunn (2010, p.14), is defined as the view that the appropriate focus of psychology should be on observable behavior. There were several people that help contribute to the study of behaviorism; however there are five that were key in pioneering what we know today; Ivan Pavlov, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born September 14, 1849 in Ryazan, Russia. His father was a poor village priest, who wanted his son to become a priest as well. Pavlov had planned to become a priest until the age of 21, when he decided he was more interested in a scientific career, (Crain, 2011, p.180). For most of his career he was dedicated to physiological investigations, and in 1904 he won the Nobel Prize for his work on the digestive system. According to Ivan Pavlov.com (2003) the most important dates of his life included, 1907 when he was elected Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 1912 given an honorary doctorate at Cambridge University, and 1915 awarded the Order of the Legion of Honour at the recommendation of the Medical Academy of Paris. He died on February 27, 1936. Around the time that he turned 50 was when he started his work on the conditioned reflexes; however for a while he could not decide whether to pursue the implications of his new discovery or to continue with his earlier research, after a long struggle with it, he began studying the conditioning process (Crain, 2011, pp.180-181). Pavlov coined the classical conditioning â€Å"a type of learning in which an association is learned between an environmental event and the stimulus-response reflex that follows (e.g., a salivary response when a person smells delicious food, even before t... ...es the influence of the social behavior of others on our learning†, (Craig & Dunn, 2010, p.16). His most famous experiment was that of the Bobo doll, where he would have three sets of children watch a video, where an adult would begin to beat on the doll and in the end one would get punished, one would get praised, and one would have nothing at all. Then those groups would get their own Bobo doll and he would watch to see if they would have the same aggressions that the adults showed. Some of the important times of his life have been; 1953 began teaching at Stanford University, 1974 served as the president of APA, 1980 received the APA’s Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions, and 2004 Outstanding Lifetime Contributions to Psychology by the American Psychological Association, (Cherry, 2010). He is currently still alive and teaching at Stanford University.

Baseball at The University of Florida :: Sports Perry Field McKethan Stadium Essays

Baseball at The University of Florida While being recruited by various colleges for baseball, I had to decide on a program with a great athletic, academic, and fan supported background. I chose the University of Florida because of their great athletic success in the past ten years and all of their well-equipped facilities. I never took a recruiting visit to the University of Florida, so when I first arrived to Gainesville and saw the baseball field for the first time I was amazed. The field looked as if it were a professional stadium. Whether you enjoy watching baseball or not, there is always something interesting happening at the ballpark. There are usually media personal conducting interviews, or fresh peanuts are being roasted, or a father and son are having a catch on the side of the field. Students also gather here and study or just hang out. Just as many people know, baseball is â€Å"America’s pastime† and the ballpark is where a family can come together, socialize, and have fun. The ballpark, also known as McKethan Stadium/Perry Field, is located in between the O’Connel center and the soccer field/track. To gain entrance into the field, there are two large glass doors for athletes to enter through captured in picture #1. This leads towards the locker rooms, dugouts, and trainer’s room. Fans are prohibited from entering these doors, which is blocked off by security guards during games. This gives a sense of feeling that even college athletes are protected like professionals. Fans enter the stadium on a ramp towards the bleachers past the box office. This keeps the fans under control and away from the athletes. The outskirt of the stadium’s landscape brings on a sense of beauty and security. A 6-foot metal fence encloses the stadium. Beyond the fence there are large palm trees and shrubbery surrounding the batting cages. This is illustrated in picture #2. The fence and plants serve as a way to keep non-ticket holders out of the stadium. This gives the field a sense of security. Because of the stadium’s location in the middle of the campus, it is easy access for anyone to attend games. Across the street from the stadium are apartment-like dorms where students can watch the games from their window.

Israeli Palestinian Conflict

What is the big deal about It? Why is it so important? The big issue is that in 1967, Israel claimed land after winning the Six Day War which the Palestinians now want back. This land, the Gaza Strip and West Bank, is considered contested territory, and both the Israelis and Palestinians are settling In It.A multitude of solutions to this conundrum have been proposed: the one-state solution, the two-state solution, the here-state solution, and the list goes on. These solutions are all based around the distribution of territory between the groups. I for one support the two-state solution which would divide the territory to form a Palestinian state separate from Israel. My first reason for this solution is that the one-state solution, which is rather popular. Wouldn't accomplish anything. Both groups wish to gain something for their own people, and one state shared between the two of them would undoubtedly cause more violence.Both the Jews and Palestinians have terrorist groups that co mbat the opposite nationality. These groups consist of average citizens in the area who claim to represent their people, so, we can infer, each nationality has at least some sort of, either miniscule or massive, inbred aversion to each other. They would continue to fight within this state's borders with even more ease. With as much rivalry as they have for each other, one state allowing free movement of these individuals would only make anti-Semitic or anti-lilacs terrorism easier.Another reason for the two-state solution Is to protect Israel's existence. One can assume that since groups like Hams are the semi-organized authority over the Palestinians, and these groups don't recognize Israel's authenticity as a country, many Palestinians don't recognize Israel. As a result of this, if there were to be one shared state, the Palestinians would have even more reason not to recognize Israel and to undermine the Israelites authority. Also, most people In the region support an end to viol ence and look forward to an era of peace.The best way to achieve peace would be through separating both nationalist groups into two distinct democratic states. They wont have anything to fight over, and a common goal between the two would be achieved. An article by The Jerusalem post noted that, In a poll, â€Å"63% of Palestinians and 70% of Israelis express their support for an end to violence, an Increase of 2% for Israelis and 5% for Palestinians over last year. † Many against the two-state solution may argue that two separate states cannot peacefully coexist when the Arabs don't recognize Israel's existence.While this statement does have some merit, the main reason for this, in my opinion, Is due to the Palestinians' forced reliance on fellow Arab states. The Palestinians were driven out of their homeland and Into other Islamic-Arab nations, This only gives them 1 OFF reason not to accept Israel. It Israel were to allocate land tort a Palestinian state, the Palestinians might lessen their rivalry towards and may even exhibit support for Israel. Another opposition to my standpoint is that nobody has definitive right to the contested land.Miramar Gadding, former dictator of Libya stated, â€Å"†¦ Neither the Palestinians, nor the Jews can be called the rightful or historical owners of the land. There have been many people on that land, and it would be best to accept that they would simply have to live together, as Jews have been able to live amidst Muslim people†¦ † Unfortunately, the Holy Lands have strong significance to both groups. However, if the Holy Lands were evenly distributed between the Jews and the Palestinians and the borders were to be officially recognized, both groups could be appeased.They would both maintain a piece of the land their Holy scripts were based off of, but they wouldn't be forced to live alongside one another. Finally, we can compare the two most prominent resolutions, the one-state solution and the two -state solution, side by side. The two-state solution will develop two independent countries, and, while the land allotment may not be ideal, it would resolve the warfare between both groups. The One-state solution would give both roofs equal rights to all of the land, but it wouldn't stop the Palestinians or the Jews from battling over prominence in the territory.If we use an analogy to represent this impasse, we can relate Israel and Palatine's relationship as a cancer patient, the two-state as chemotherapy, and the one-state solution as palliative care. If we treat the â€Å"patient† with â€Å"chemotherapy', they have a favorable chance of getting better, although they will suffer unfavorable drawbacks. On the contrary, if we treat the â€Å"patient† with â€Å"palliative care†, they will feel better for an indeterminate amount of time, but assuredly die eventually. In conclusion, the two-state solution, although not perfect, is the least flawed of all the proposals to resolve this contention.

Biology By2 Revision

Parasitic Nutrition 21 May 2011 10:43 = organisms that live on or in another organism obtaining nourishment at the expense of the host and causing harm. Gut parasite (Taenia solium) = tapeworm Primary host = human (eat uncooked infected pork) Secondary host = pig (drainage channels contaminated by human faeces) Adaptations†¦ – Suckers & hookers (attachment) – Body covering (immune responses) – Thick cuticle (inhibitory substances = enzymes) – Simple body systems (reproduction) – Very thin & large surface area (food absorbed over whole body surface = diffusion) – Male & female sex organs (gut can only accommodate 1 tapeworm) – Number of eggs produced (increase chance of survival) – Eggs have resistant shells (survive until eaten) Dormant embryos can form cysts in organs – damage surrounding tissue BY2 revision Page 1 Adaptions to different diets 21 May 2011 10:53 Reptiles & Amphibians = swallow food whole Mammals = cut up and chew (palate separates nasal cavity & mouth – kept in mouth longer) Carnivore = short gut (easily digest protein) Herbivore = long gut (p lant digestion difficult) Dentition Mechanical digestion = easier to swallow & increases surface area for enzyme action Herbivore Incisors Canines Lower jaw, cuts against horny pad (upper jaw) Indistinguishable from incisors Carnivore Sharp (tear flesh from bone) Large, curved, pointed = seizing prey, killing & tearing flesh Carnassial (slide past each other = garden shears) molars = cutting/crushing) Vertical (open wide to capture & kill prey) Not horizontal (dislocation) Jaw muscles = well developed/powerful (grip firmly on prey/crush bones) Cheek teeth Interlock. (W into M) Worn down = sharp enamel ridges (efficiency). Open roots (grinding) Jaw movement Other Circular grinding. Horizontal plane Diastema = gap between front & side teeth. Tongue moves cut grass to grinding surfaces (cheek teeth) Ruminants Produce most protein eaten by humans eg. Cows/sheep Mutualism/Symbiosis = close association between members of 2 species, both derive some benefit from the relationship. – Can't digest cellulose (no cellulose enzymes) – Cellulose-digesting bacteria live in gut of cow – Separated = food left long enough for digestion, bacteria isolated (optimum pH & conditions) Cellulose digestion†¦ – Grass chopped (teeth), saliva, cud formed, swallowed – 1st stomach = cellulose digesting bacteria (glucose = fermented – organic acids into blood. Waste = co2 & methane – Cud into next region, regurgitated & chewed again – 3rd stomach = water absorption – 4th stomach (‘normal' stomach) = protein digestion – Small intestine = absorption Rumen = greater variety of mutualistic organisms than in caecum More efficient = more complete breakdown of cellulose Bacteria = source of protein when dead BY2 revision Page 2 Digestion 21 May 2011 11:35 = the break down of large insoluble molecules into smaller soluble molecules. Physical & chemical. Food passes through alimentary canal where it is digested & absorbed into the body. Digestive enzymes = hydrolases (catalyse hydrolysis of substrate – addition of water) – Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) > disaccharides > monosaccharides (Amylase = maltose >glucose) – Proteins >polypeptides >dipeptides >amino-acids (peptidase = endo/exo) – Fats > fatty acids & glycerol (lipase) Mouth (buccal cavity) – Mechanical digestion (teeth) – Saliva = salivary lands (mucus, salivary amylase & mineral ions = optimum pH – slightly alkaline) = lubrication & some protein digestion (amylase = starch > maltose) – Swallowed as bolus Oesophagus – Peristaltic contractions (longitudinal & circular muscles = not under conscious control) – Occurs all way through alimentary canal Stomach = muscular sac (2 sphincter muscles = cardiac & pyloric keep food in stomach) – Muscles in stomach wall contract rhythmically (mix food with gastric juice = secreted by stomach wall) – Gastric juice = optimum pH of enzymes (pH2. 0), kills most bacteria, peptidase enzymes = protein > polypeptides Pepsinogen (inactive) = activated by HCl to active peptidase enzyme – Mucus = form lining (protect wall from enzymes & acid/assist movement) – Food leaves as chyme – Purpose of HCl = optimum pH for enzymes, kill microbes, activate pepsinogen (pepsin) Gastric glands = peptic/chief cells (p epsinogen = inactive until HCl), oxyntic (secretes HCl) & goblet cells (mucus) Small Intestine = duodenum (first 20cm) & ileum Bile = produced in liver, stored in gall bladder, into duodenum via bile duct. = no enzymes. Bile salts = emulsifying lipids (lowers surface tension = globules – droplets [surface area]) = neutralise acidity = exocrine glands in Pancreas via Pancreatic duct. = Contains enzymes. Trypsinogen – Trypsin (Enterokinase) = Endopeptidases (protein > peptides) Pancreatic Amylase (starch > maltose) Pancreatic Lipase (lipids >fatty acids & glycerol) Pancreatic juice Walls of duodenum = Brunner's Glands (secrete alkaline juice & mucus) – correct pH & lubrication/protection Enzymes secreted by cells at tips of villi (Crypts of Lieberkuhn) Maltase = Maltose > 2 Glucose Sucrase = sucrose > glucose & galactose Endopeptidases/Exopeptidases = polypeptides > amino acids Endo = quaternary/tertiary – smaller polypeptides. Exo = peptides – amino acids Absorption Ileum adapted†¦ – Long BY2 revision Page 3 – Long Lining folded = large surface area Villi = finger like projections Epithelial cells = surface of villi (microscopic projections – microvilli) Large number of mitochondria = lots of energy required Glucose & Amino-acids = epithelium of villi (diffusion & active transport) into capillary network – hepatic portal vein to liver Fatty acids & Glycerol = lacteal (blindly ending lymph capillary) – lymphatic system into bloodstream (thoracic duct) Fatty acids, Glycerol & most vitamins = diffusion through epithelial cell membrane Glucose, Amino acids & dipeptides = need ATP (energy) – co-transport (Na+ ion) Dipeptides digested intracellularly-pump ions out and then draws more in – carries molecules in with it. Large intestine – Caecum, Appendix, Colon & Rectum – Water & mineral salts absorbed in colon – vitamins secreted by micro-organisms (vitamin K & folic acid (Vitamin B9) – Faeces = semi-solid condition (undigested cellulose, bacteria, sloughed cells) – defaecation Uses†¦ Soluble food products – bloodstream – tissues (assimilation/provide energy) – Glucose = energy release (respiration)/excess stored (fat cells) – Amino Acids = protein-synthesis. Cannot be stored (deaminated – urea {disposed} & carbs {stored}) – Lipids = membranes/hormones/excess stored as fat BY2 revision Page 4 Structure of the gut 24 May 2011 08:52 Peristalsis = aids movement of food through alimentary canal 1) 2) 3) 4) Ingestion Digestion (mechanical = increase surface area/chemical = enzymes, glands in wall/outside wall) Absorption Egestion Structure of Mammalian Gut – Outer serosa = layer of connective tissue (protection/reduces friction from other organs as it moves) – Muscle layer = inner circular/outer longitudinal muscles = peristalsis – Sub-mucosa = connective tissue, contains blood/lymph vessels – absorption & nerves (co-ordinate muscular contractions – peristalsis) – Mucosa = innermost layer (lines wall of gut), secretes mucus (lubrication & protection), secretes digestive juices in some regions (stomach)/absorbs food (ileum) – Lumen = cavity of gut BY2 revision Page 5 Glands 1) Large glands outside gut – secretions pass through tubes/ducts into lumen Eg. Salivary gland, liver, pancreas 2) Glands in form of cells in sub-mucosa Eg. Secrete mucus in duodenum (Brunner's glands – alkaline juices also) 3) Glands in form of cells in mucosa Eg. Gastric glands(stomach) = gastric juice Crypts of lieberkuhn(in base of villus of small intestine) = enzymes (complete digestion) – maltase = maltose – Sucrase = sucrose – Endopeptidase/exopeptidase = peptides/dipeptides BY2 revision Page 6 Adaptions for nutrition 24 May 2011 09:37 Nutrition = obtain energy to maintain life functions and matter to create/maintain structure (from nutrients) Autotrophic plants Use simple organic materials CO2 & H2O to manufacture energy & make complex compounds (make own food) – provide food for others = producers Green plants build up complex organic molecules eg sugars from CO2 & H2O. Source of energy = sunlight (absorbed in chlorophyll & related pigments) [6CO2 +6H2O > C6H12O6 + 6O2] Use energy from special methods of respiration to synthesize organic food Consume complex organic food material (cannot make own food) = consumers. Take food into bodies and break down by digestion. Usually internal in digestive system. Digested material – absorbed (body tissues – used by cells) Herbivores/Carnivores/Detritivores Dead/decaying matter – no specialized digestive system. Secrete enzymes outside body & absorb. (extracellular digestion). Microscopic = decomposers (important recycling valuable nutrients – nitrogen) – Photosynthesis Plants/algae/ certain bacteria Autotrophic bacteria Animals, fungi, some protoctists & bacteria Most animals – Chemosynthesis Heterotrophic – Holozoic feeders – Saprophytes (saprobionts) – Parasites – Mutualism (symbiosis) Fungi & some bacteria Tapeworm Organism that live in/on another organism and receive nutrition from it. Host suffers harm. Highly specialized. Cellulose Involves close association between members of2 different species. digesting bacteria Both derive some benefit from the relationship BY2 revision Page 7 Reproductive Strategies 24 May 2011 10:08 Life cycle = sequence of changes through which it passes during its life from origin in reproduction until death. Reproduction = ability to produce other individuals of the same species Asexual – Rapidly produces large numbers (identical genetic composition = clone) – Binary fission (eg. Unicellular organisms – bacteria/amoeba) – Budding (eg. Hydra/yeast) – Bulbs (eg. Onion/daffodil) – Runners (eg. Strawberry) – Tubers (eg. Potato) Sexual – Involves 2 parents – Less rapid than asexual – Offspring are genetically different – Fusion of haploid gametes Advantages/Disadvantages†¦ Asexual = lack of variety (adapting to environmental change) = if well suited to environment conditions, large numbers of successful type built up quickly Sexual = genetic variety (adapt to environmental change) = development of resistant stage in life cycle (can withstand adverse conditions) = formation of spores, seeds, larvae = dispersal of offspring. Reduces intraspecific competition – enables genetic variety to develop as required. = more chance of mutation (complexity of process) Production of Gametes Diploid = body cells (mitosis) Haploid = sex cells/gametes (meiosis) Haploid Sperm + Haploid Egg = Diploid Fertilized Egg Zygote formed – mitosis to grow Male gamete = small& extremely motile Female gamete = large/sedentary (presence of stored food) Mammalian eggs have only enough to survive until formation of placenta External Fertilization – Discharge gametes directly into sea/freshwater – Considerable wastage = eggs may not encounter sperm – Vast numbers of gametes produced – Frogs – joining of sperm/egg assisted by coupling. Male rubs hind legs on female for her to lay eggs, he immediately releases seminal fluid over them. – Amphibians usually terrestrial, must return to water to breed = external fertilization Internal Fertilization – Occurs inside body of female – Requires intermittent organ to introduce sperm to female's body – Less chance of gametes being wasted BY2 revision Page 8 – Less chance of gametes being wasted Allows male gamete to be independent of water for movement Fertilized egg can be enclosed with protective covering before leaving female. (Animals lay eggs) Embryos develop within parent and derive nourishment from her (placenta) = greatest adaption (mammals) Development of Zygote – Usually outside body – easy prey for predators – Many eggs produced to ensure some survive – Insects, internal fertilization (ensure sperm deposited in female's reproductive tract), external development (laid on food source) – Evolution of amniote egg (reptiles/birds) = fluid filled cavity, surrounded by membrane & protective shell, encloses embryo within yolk sac – Birds incubate eggs = embryo development (external) – Mammals = young retained in mother's womb/uterus (no shell). Embryo nourished from mother's blood supply (placenta). Born in relatively advanced state of development. Parental Care – Very little usually – Stickleback looks after eggs, defends territory, fans eggs to provide o2 until they hatch – Birds & mammals = provision of shelter, feeding, protection from predators, training for adult life. More parental care provided = fewer offspring produced Unisexual/Hermaphrodite â₠¬â€œ Plants = male and female gametes produced in one individual – Every individual capable of forming fertilized eggs – Possibility of self-fertilization = inbreeding (reduced genetic variability) – No intromittent organs – special techniques evolved for transferring gametes Success of Insects – Mainly terrestrial – Depend on these to pollinate crops – Competition for food also – Carry disease eg. Malaria Incomplete Metamorphosis (eg. Grasshopper) – Egg – Intermediate form = nymph (resembles adult – smaller) – Hard exoskeleton – doesn't grow, must shed skin/molt – Does this a series of times until it reaches full size Complete metamorphosis (eg. Butterfly/housefly) – Egg – Lava (specialized for feeding/growing) – Pupa/chrysalis – complete change – Emerges as adult specialized for dispersal and reproduction Plants Simple plants = algae (seaweeds = confined to sea) & mosses & ferns (confined to damp areas -male gamete can swim to egg) Successful plants = conifers & flowering plants (independent of water for reproduction – able to colonize land) Flowering plants = morphology (Efficient water carrying xylem vessels & reproduction) – Male pollen grains with hard coat = withstand desiccation (transfer to stigma of female – affect by environmental conditions) – Plants & grasses = small inconspicuous flowers – pollen carried by wind – Brightly coloured flowers & scent = attraction by insects (carry pollen to stigma) BY2 revision Page 9 – Brightly coloured flowers & scent = attraction by insects (carry pollen to stigma) Male gametes travel through pollen tube to female part and egg (no longer needs film of water to reach egg) Fertilised egg develops into seed containing food store (with resistant coat) Key to success = relationship with animals (attract insects which pollinate/seed dispersal) & enclosure of eggs in ovary and evolution of seed – Can survive adverse conditions Flowering plants are so successful because of†¦ – Short interval between flower production and setting of seed (few weeks) – Seed with food store = embryo develops until leaves are produced above ground (photosynthesis) – Seed protects embryo from desiccation & other hazards = resistant coat – Leaves deciduous & succulent = decay when fall to ground – humus produced. (rapid recycling of ions for reuse) BY2 revision Page 10 Translocation 24 May 2011 14:41 = transport of soluble organic materials, sucro se and amino acids (bi-directional movement) Products of photosynthesis = phloem. From source (area that makes the photosynthate – sucrose = leaves) to sink (where needed for growth/storage) Phloem structure – Sieve tubes (adapted for longitudinal flow of material = no nucleus ,have pores =sieve plates allows rapid flow of manufactured food substances) – Companion cells (linked to sieve tubes by plasmodesmata with fibres & parenchyma, dense cytoplasm = lots of mitochondria – lots of metabolic activity, large nucleus – controls activity) – Phloem fibres – Phloem parenchyma â€Å"Mass flow† hypothesis – There is a passive flow of sucrose from source to sink – Does not account for observations such as movement in opposite directions at same time & rate – Other hypotheses = diffusion, cytoplasmic streaming Evidence for translocation†¦ 1) Aphid (greenfly) – Feed (proboscis), leave embedded proboscis, liquid = sucrose & amino acids. Sectioning stem shows proboscis is in phloem sieve tube 2) Ringing Experiments – Cut off ring of bark (including phloem, leave xylem), immerse in water. Swelling above cut = accumulation of organic solutes, cannot continue. Will eventually die 3) Radioactive isotopes – Carbon-14 supplied to plant – fixed in glucose upon photosynthesis (14C6H12O6) – Stem cut, x-ray = phloem contains radioactivity BY2 revision Page 11