Hire Purchase Evolution Of Credit Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2333 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Business has evolved since the ancient times from barter, business, commercial venture, general manufacturing to specialized manufacturing today. Initially, only the seller and buyer were parties to a business transaction. The title to the asset is given by bill or invoice. Bill is used for consumables or low value assets that are usually purchased in cash. Invoice is used to specify durables or high value assets that are purchased on credit. Sales can be in either cash or credit. The two tasks for the seller are to sell and to monitor credit. Credit/ loan were evolved to bridge the gap between the purchasing power and demand. Over time credit organizations differentiated into sales and finance organizations. Today, three parties are involved in business transactions: seller, buyer and financier. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Hire Purchase Evolution Of Credit Finance Essay" essay for you Create order Advantages of credit Higher purchasing power Working capital is retained, increasing liquidity levels in the business Tax shield on interest expense Credit sales can be differentiated into Loan/Hypothecation Hire Purchase Leasing HISTORY OF HIRE PURCHASE Hire purchase originated in England and is now unique to former British colonies. The financier purchases the asset and lets it on hire to the user. The user exercises an option to purchase the asset at the end of the contract after paying all the dues. HP is a transaction in which the purchaser of goods pays an initial deposit and takes possession. Subsequent installments are made over a specified time after which ownership passes to the purchaser. The parties to the contract are Owner (financier) and Hirer (purchaser / user). The installments are called Hire Money. If there is a default in the payment of any installment, the financier retains the right to repossess the asset from the purchaser without any refund. Sundaram Finance is one of the first hire purchase companies in India. In fact, they were instrumental in the creation of the Hire Purchase Act of 1972. ELEMENTS OF HIRE PURCHASE AGREEMENT To be a valid hire purchase agreement, the following elements must be clearly specified in writing and signed by the hirer as well as the financier: Identifying attributes of the asset, such as chassis number, engine number etc. Cash price of the goods i.e. price at which the goods may be purchased Hire purchase price, which is the amount payable by the hirer under the agreement Down payment or initial hire payable by the hirer Number, amount and date of each installment payable by the hirer Date of commencement of hire purchase agreement Rate of interest charged by financier COMPARISON OF LOAN, HIRE PURCHASE AND LEASE Table 2.1 Comparison of Loan, Hire Purchase and Lease Criteria Hypothecation Hire Purchase Lease Sale of asset Sold to borrower, hypothecated to financier Sold to financier, financier hires to buyer (hirer) Sold to financier (lessor), financier leases to lessee Initial payment Margin money Initial hire Lease deposit Ownership Title is with borrower from the beginning At the end of the contract, title transfer to buyer is done Title remains with lessor throughout the life of the asset Cash flow to seller Loan value of the asset is paid by financier, balance amount by borrower 100% of asset cost is paid by financier 100% of asset cost is paid by lessor In case of default Money is the consideration Court intervention is necessary POA* is obtained to bypass court intervention Asset can be taken away by financier Court intervention is not necessary since the financier is the owner of the asset Asset can be taken away by lessee Court intervention is not necessary since the lessee is the owner of the asset *- POA is Power of Attorney. The lender/financier reserves the right to repossess the asset without court intervention, to save time and resources. PROCESS OF A HIRE PURCHASE TRANSACTION Eligibility to avail hire purchase The field officers approach a prospective client and explain the terms of the hire purchase deal. Generally, assets with a high rate of depreciation are financed through hire purchase. The following entities can avail finance: Persons of contractual capacity i.e. of age greater than 18 years (as verified by birth certificate), sound mind Partnership firms Proprietary organizations Companies Public limited companies Quasi- Governments Governments POA holders Natural Guardians Under Hindu Law, the partys father is preferred as natural guardian. Only by way of practice/ convenience the mother is accepted as guardian. Under Christian Law, either father or mother can be accepted as guardian. Under Muslim Law, there is no guardianship. Further, ladies behind purdah cannot be signatories to a hire-purchase agreement. Proposal Analysis Before entering into a contract with an applicant for a hire-purchase financing, field investigation is a must. The following aspects of a client are verified through field analysis: Place of residence (applicant should have resided in the place for a minimum of 2 years) Standard of life Character of applicant (determining willingness to pay) Income details Source of income Property owned by applicant Expenses Credit rating of the individual This is a strictly subjective judgment performed by the branch office and sent to the head office for verification. At Sundaram Finance, the applicants income and monthly commitment alone are considered. In case of salaried professionals, latest salary slip and annual tax returns or Form 16 have to be submitted. This is used to determine the gross salary, from which statutory deductions and total borrowings are reduced, arriving at net salary. This is the basis for capacity determination. In case of businesspeople, the companys balance sheet and PL account are scrutinized to determine the cash profit i.e. net profit after tax plus depreciation from PL account. Net annual income should be equal to or greater than twice the annual commitment of the contract. This is called cash flow cover. Amount Commitment is the sum of all the Equal Monthly Installments paid in a year i.e. [EMI] x 12. Calculation of EMI The total amount repayable is the sum of the principal (cost price of the asset) and interest (cost of funds). EMI = Amount repayable / Number of installments The interest component is given by Interest = Principal * Flat rate of interest * Number of years Flat Rate of Interest Simple Rate of Interest This is generally used for computing the EMI manually, easily and easy understanding of a monthly commitment. This rate of interest is used for the purpose of accounting and banking. The EMI is initially fixed and the hirer has to pay this fixed amount for all the installments. The EMI charges payable by the consumers vary for every installment when calculated using simple rate of interest and hence it is confusing. The amount contributed towards the interest and principle varies with installments. Interest amount is calculated for every month with respect to the principal remaining. At Sundaram Finance, hire purchase contracts normally exist for a period of between 12 months and 60 months, in multiples of 6 months. Operations The asset is purchased according to the hirers specifications. The engine number and chassis number specified in the invoice are noted in the contract. These details should be identical in the RC book, contract and invoice for the agreement to be legal. The date of the agreement and the invoice should be identical in a hire purchase contract, since the asset comes into existence on that date. However, this is not mandatory in hypothecation. The following documents are collected to process a hire purchase application: 1. Income proof Salary slip Form 16 Latest IT return PL A/C, balance sheet (audited) 2. Identity proof Passport Photo credit card Pan card Driving license Voter id Ration card Partnership deed Trust deed Certificate of incorporation 3. Location proof Ration card Telephone bill House tax challan Driving license Electricity bill 4. Asset proof House tax challan Copy of sale deed Wealth tax assessment Housing cooperation society bill 5. Signature verification Passport Photo credit card Pan card Driving license Voter ID card Signature verification from bank 6. Bank statement 7. Photograph Serving debt In hire purchase, debt need not be served in full. The buyer or renter is free to return the asset at any period in the agreement, and no further installments need to be paid. This is why 100% financing is never performed in a hire purchase transaction. At Sundaram Finance, the dates of payment are fixed as 3rd, 10th, 17th and 22nd of every month. Post dated cheques are collected. In event of default Default or non-payment of installments is defined as For car 2 months lapse in payment. For commercial vehicle 90 days lapse in payment. The following procedure is followed by the financier for repossession of asset in the event of payment default: Figure 2.1 Procedure to deal with payment default Contract termination At the end of the hire purchase contract Re. 1 is collected as option money to terminate the contract. Form 35 is issued. Financier endorses the RC book with no dues enabling title transfer to the hirer / purchaser. In a hypothecation, Form 35 is issued to terminate the contract. OTHER ASPECTS PERTAINING TO HIRE PURCHASE Motor Vehicles Act Any vehicle plying on a public road must be registered. Form 20 application to register a new vehicle Form 34 to register a new vehicle Form 29 30 transfer of ownership (If there is an endorsement in the RC book by a financier, title cannot be transferred unless a NOC No Objection Certificate is gained.) Form 35 termination or extension of contract Insurance Insurance can be defined as a lot of people sharing the burden of one deprived man. Motor Vehicle insurance does not specify a limit on the value of claims that can be made. It can be differentiated into comprehensive and third-party insurance. Third-party insurance merely compensates damages caused to third party by the actions of the vehicle user provided valid drivers license is present. Any vehicle plying on the road must have third party insurance. Comprehensive insurance also compensates for damage to the vehicle and owner, in addition to third party damage. Any vehicle under finance must compulsorily have comprehensive insurance. Insurance does not cover war war-like activities, nuclear reactions and acts of terrorism. CREDIT POLICY Credit policy aids the financier in preparing the terms of a hire purchase contract. It is merely a guideline for conducting the business. At Sundaram Finance the first written credit policy was established in 2000 when the volume of business crossed Rs. 2 crore. It is now reviewed every year, and is subject to change based on economic and other market conditions. Credit policy has an effect on three main variables: Percentage of funding Repayment period Interest rate Percentage of funding In hire purchase, 100% of asset value is never financed. The loan to value ratio varies according to the type of asset and the credit risk. The ratio is always calculated on the ex-invoice price less discount. Loan to Value ratio, or LTV, can increase if market expands or delinquencies decrease. Higher LTV means that a higher portion of the asset price is funded by the financier, with lesser initial hire amount. This is fixed according to the company policy and reviewed periodically. Interest rate The interest rate is inclusive of the internal return rate or profit margin for the financier. This is variable based on Return on Investment RBI regulations Economic reforms Market conditions Presently, the IRR cannot vary during the term of a contract. It has to be fixed at the time of drawing up the contract. Repayment Period This is almost always constant for a given type of asset and class of customer, owing to the depreciation of asset with time. ASSETS FINANCED THROUGH HIRE PURCHASE Sundaram Finance extends finance through hire purchase for Cars Commercial vehicles Cars are an expense, while commercial vehicles are an income generating asset. For financing a car, past income is considered, while for commercial vehicle, predicted future income flows are considered. Presently the market share of Sundaram Finance in hire purchase finance of cars is about 7 16%, with up to 24% in some pockets such as Vellore district. Credit Classification of Cars Table 2.2 Classification of Cars CLASSIFICATION NAME VALUE OF ASSET (in Rs. lakhs) A Small Car 3-4 B Medium Car 4-7.5 C Large Car 7.5-15 D Luxury Car 15 Table 2.3 LTV Funded for Cars and Jeeps SALARIED BUSINESS Small 90% 85% Medium 85% 85% luxury 80% 75% Repayment period for A B class cars, for salaried class, is 60 months. For others, it is 48 months. In the event of gifting a car acquired through hire purchase, third party guarantee with evidence must be present. Credit Classification of Commercial Vehicle Any vehicle that runs on the road for remuneration is a Commercial Vehicle. They can be classified as load carrying or passenger carrying vehicles stage carriage or contract carriage vehicles LCV, MCV, HCV or multi-axle vehicles Stage carriage is on a fixed route, with fixed timings and fixed fare. Ex. Public buses. Contract carriage is where every aspect route, timings and fare is customized according to individual customer needs. Ex. Autorickshaw. Table 2.4 Classification of Commercial Vehicles ABBREVIATION CLASSIFICATION GROSS LOAD WEIGHT (in tons) LCV Light Commercial Vehicle 5 MCV Medium Commercial Vehicle 5-10 HCV Heavy Commercial Vehicle 10-15 Multi Axle Vehicle 15 Table 2.5 LTV Funded for Commercial Vehicles TRUCK BUS LCV Experience (in years) 3 3 3 Tenure (in months) 48 48 36 LTV of total chassis cost 95% 90% 85% LTV of total body cost 90% 90% 85% Repayment period for LCVs alone is 36 months as they depreciate faster and earn less revenue. For other classes the period is 60 months. For used commercial vehicles, the following are the credit norms applicable at Sundaram Finance: Table 2.6 Credit Policy for Hire Purchase Finance of Used Commercial Vehicles CREDIT POLICY NEW CUSTOMER EXISTING CUSTOMER Age of vehicle at closure of contract = 8 years = 8 years Maximum tenure (in months) 36 36 LTV (on basis of market value) 60% 60% Paper cash cover (times net income) 1.5 1.5 Assessed cash cover (times net income) 2.0 2.0 Exposure limit (in Rs. Lakhs) 10 10(if not fixed by HO/RO) Age (in years) at the closure of contract 65 65 Years in business 2 2 Years in location 3 3 Eligibility criteria Should own one free and road-worthy vehicle Previous closed contract to be not greater than 12 months ago

The Black Freedom Struggle Of The 1960s - 1664 Words

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Wireless Communication Data Eencryption Methods of WiMax

Question: Discuss about the Wireless Communication for Data Eencryption Methods of WiMax. Answer: Introduction The report has shown the data encryption methods of WiMax and compared them for forming an overview about their system. The report has a second part where the security issues of the WPAN have been analyzed. The overall report has shown the importance of the wireless communication and networking for daily activities. Compare and Contrast Data Encryption Standard of WiMax WiMax (Wireless Interoperability Multiple Access) is a standard for wireless access (802.16) and it is used for developing a network of wireless access among two end points (Desai, 2013). The security protocols of WiMax are PKMv2, EAP, and AES. These above stated protocols of WiMax have helped in forming data security and encryption. Explaining the PKMv2 security protocol PKMv2 or privacy key management protocol version 2 is used for encryption and authorization exchange of crypto keys (Sridevi Rajaram, 2012). The crypto keys help in the process of multicasting and broadcasting of the data traffic. It has been created for overcoming the short comings of the first version of PKM and it uses the standard of both RSA and EAP for security and encryption of data. Figure 1: PKMv2 Protocols (Source: Sridevi Rajaram, 2012, pp-71) The key generated for authentication of the operation is more precise as two standard principles have been used for forming the key (Desai, 2013). The mobile station can be authenticated for the wireless activities and operations by the base station using the crypto keys of mutual authorization. Replay attacks are being dealt by using Nonce. Explaining the EAP security protocol EAP is acronym for Extensible Authentication Protocol and it has primary function of user authentication and device security (Pawlowski, Jara Ogorzalek, 2014). It is used for point to point protocol formation and the process of multiple authentications has been enabled for use by the EAP protocol. Smart cards, password or passphrases, certificates, and authentication using public key are all being used sue to the implementation of EAP. EAP can be mixed with new security features easily and according to the new security feature mixed with EAP, the protocol has been named as EAP-TTLS, EAP-MD5, and EAP-TLS (Kalra Kiran, 2015). The pre-negotiation for the authentication is not needed and the identity request can be sent initially with other queries and request. Figure 2: EAP protocol authentication process (Source: Pawlowski, Jara Ogorzalek, 2014, pp-344) Explaining the AES security protocol AES or Advanced Encryption Standard is the most advanced form of network security and the data is transmitted over the cloud network (Wadi Zainal, 2013). The security protocol has helped in securing the air traffic by data encryption. The keys for the security encryption can be of various sizes and block such as 128, 192 or 256. The AES process has been based on the process of permutation and substitution. AES uses bytes for operations and specific outputs (Kalra Kiran, 2015). Encryption is done in AES by following four processes in sequence and decryption is done by doing the same processes in reverse sequence. Figure 3: AES algorithm overall structure (Source: Wadi Zainal, 2013, pp-414) Security challenges of WPAN technologies WPAN (wireless personal area network) is limited for communicating and data exchange among portable devices like PCs, PDAs, printers, pagers, and mobile phones (Amiri et al., 2013). The devices are inbuilt with two radio surfaces among which one is utilized for cellular network and the other for PAN connection. Bluetooth and ZigBee are the two WPAN technologies whose security challenges are discussed below. Security Challenges of Bluetooth (802.15.1) The security challenges of the Bluetooth WPAN are Inferior Security protocols and Denial of Service attack. Inferior Security protocols: The Bluetooth radio control can be easily misused, as it has higher vulnerabilities for impersonating and eavesdropping (Minar Tarique, 2012). The person in the middle attack can be used for attacking the devices and extracting the information from the device. It would be easily possible as the security of the Bluetooth device is less secured. The attacker of man in the middle sets up two point to point connections for negotiation of the radio frequencies of Bluetooth radio. The inferior security protocols would result in easy damaging and performing of the illicit queries. Denial of Service: The Bluetooth devices are prone to the denial of service attack. The DoS attack would be highly possible for the Bluetooth radio frequency due to the ease of accessing the device facility (Minar Tarique, 2012). DoS occur when the device is sent multiple queries for processing using fake server. It would cease the processing of user generated queries for the devices. The infiltration of the security measures would result in data theft and impersonation of the authentic users. Security challenges of ZigBee (802.15.4) The security challenges of ZigBee WPAN are Key Attacks and Injection and replay attacks. Physical attacks: The devices can be disrupted by the gaining physical access to the devices. The security of the Zigbee devices can be easily bypassed manually. Altering with the hardware and software appliances of ZigBee is easy with the gain of physical access to the device. Hence physical access is the main reason behind the attack on the security of ZigBee devices. Injection and replay attacks: The key based attacks on the ZigBee after mixing with the replay packet attack and injection attack have affect on the activities of the radio devices (Vidgren, 2013). It would result in unauthorized and unauthenticated actions of the devices. The light designs of the ZigBee would result in the interception of the data packets for the targeted networks. The ZigBee devices could be tampered without contacting the physical access to the system. Key Attacks: The keys used for connecting the two devices can be easily decrypted because of low security structure (Vidgren, 2013). The combination of hardware and software applications would result in doing the illicit operations from the devices. The device would not be required to be in physical access for performing the key attacks. The pre shared keys and OTA processes are used for connecting the devices using systematic methodologies. Conclusion The report has covered the impact of the wireless technologies for the development of the communication system. The WiMax technologies protocols (PKMv2, EAP, and AES) have been compared in the above report. The security challenges of WPAN technologies are Inferior Security protocol, Denial of Service, Injection and replay attacks, and Key Attacks. References Amiri, I. S., Alavi, S. E., Idrus, S. M., Nikoukar, A., Ali, J. (2013). IEEE 802.15. 3c WPAN standard using millimeter optical soliton pulse generated by a panda ring resonator.IEEE Photonics Journal,5(5), 7901912-7901912. Desai, P. (2013).U.S. Patent No. 8,526,348. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Kalra, M. S., Kiran, M. V. (2015). Research and Analysis of WiMax Communication.traffic,4(9). Minar, N. B. N. I., Tarique, M. (2012). Bluetooth security threats and solutions: a survey.International Journal of Distributed and Parallel Systems,3(1), 127 Pawlowski, M. P., Jara, A. J., Ogorzalek, M. J. (2014, July) Extending Extensible Authentication Protocol over IEEE 802.15. 4 Networks InIMIS(pp. 340-345). Sridevi, B., Rajaram, S. (2012). PKMv2EAP authentication cost reduction of mobile WiMAX network entry process by the proposed key caching mechanisms.International Journal of Mobile Network Design and Innovation,4(2), 65-75. Vidgren, N., Haataja, K., Patino-Andres, J. L., Ramirez-Sanchis, J. J., Toivanen, P. (2013, January). Security threats in ZigBee-enabled systems: vulnerability evaluation, practical experiments, countermeasures, and lessons learned. InSystem Sciences (HICSS), 2013 46th Hawaii International Conference on(pp. 5132-5138). IEEE. Wadi, S., Zainal, N. (2013). A low cost implementation of modified advanced encryption standard algorithm using 8085A microprocessor.Journal of Engineering Science and Technology,8(4), 406-415.